XROMM kinematics of ventilation in wild turkeys ().

The avian ribcage is derived relative to other amniotes, and is hypothesised to be constrained in its movements during ventilation. The double-headed ribs form two articulations with the vertebrae, and are thought to rotate about a strict anatomical axis. However, this costovertebral joint constraint has not been demonstrated empirically and was not found in other taxa with double-headed ribs (i.e. crocodilians). Here, we used X-ray reconstruction of moving morphology (XROMM) to quantify rib rotation in wild turkeys () during breathing. We demonstrate that, as predicted from anatomy, the ribs do rotate in a hinge-like manner about a single axis. There is also evidence for elliptical motion of the sternum, as has been reported in other taxa. The evolution of the avian ribcage is closely related to the co-evolution of ventilation and flight, and these results are important for how we model ventilation mechanics in living and fossil birds.