Cytokine and chemokine regulation of venous thromboembolism.

Morbidity and mortality from venous thromboembolism (VTE), which refers to deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, have a substantial effect on the global burden of disease. The field of venous thrombosis research has been dramatically changed over the past 10 years with the improvement of animal models that shed some light on the interaction between inflammation and thrombosis. Important recent advances provided evidence of the implication of the innate immune system in venous thrombosis. In this review, we highlighted the cytokines and chemokines that regulate mechanisms of thrombus formation and resolution. Cytokines are pleiotropic, redundant, and multifunctional endogenous mediators orchestrating the inflammatory responses leading to thrombus formation or resolution. The use of experimental models has revealed the pro-thrombotic activity of some cytokines including interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-6, chemokine ligand 2, IL-17A, IL-9, IL-1β, and transforming growth factor-β. Other cytokines such as IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-8 appear to promote thrombus resolution in late phase of venous thromboembolism. The purpose of this review is to bring together the current knowledge regarding the cytokines and chemokines that have been involved in thrombosis formation and resolution. We postulate that an imbalance between pro-thrombotic and anti-thrombotic cytokines/chemokines may be involved in the pathophysiology of VTE. However, in-depth basic and clinical research in venous thrombosis is still require to fully understand the precise mechanism of action of these cytokines.