Use and Avoidance of Pesticides as Responses by Farmers to change Impacts in Rice Ecosystems of Southern Sri Lanka.

Since the beginning of the millennium, pesticide use has increased dramatically across Asia. However, it is still unclear what drives pesticide use among low-income farmers. We surveyed 275 farmers to investigate their decisions to apply or avoid pesticides on rice farms in southern Sri Lanka. Based on the information from the survey, we applied the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses framework to assess farmers' decisions as 'Responses' to changes in the rice ecosystem. Organic farmers mainly planted traditional varieties (64-77%) that they perceived as resistant to environmental stresses, including insect herbivores. Pesticide users, including integrated pest management farmers, and insecticide-free farmers (without insecticide use for ≥5 years) mainly planted modern rice varieties. There were no significant differences in reported rice yields among farmers using different management practices. However, fewer organic and insecticide-free farmers reported insect pests, particularly planthoppers, as a production constraint. Insecticide use by farmers was mainly an adaptive response to perceived risks of pest damage to high-yielding varieties. But farmers' responses were largely unsupported by any previous experience, suggesting that an increased availability and marketing of agrochemicals, and pressures to modernize production have influenced their decisions to use insecticides. Organic and insecticide-free farming practices were mainly restorative responses to perceived health risks associated with agrochemicals. We suggest that attention could be placed on promoting 'pesticide-free' or 'insecticide-free' farming through certification schemes as a viable option to break the lock-in of pesticide use on rice farms in the region and to provide additional product choices for rice consumers.