Dealing with predictable and unpredictable temperatures in a climate change context: the case of parasitoids and their hosts.

The Earth's climate is changing at a rapid pace. To survive in increasingly fluctuating and unpredictable environments, species can either migrate or evolve through rapid local adaptation, plasticity and/or bet-hedging. For small ectotherm insects, like parasitoids and their hosts, phenotypic plasticity and bet-hedging could be critical strategies for population and species persistence in response to immediate, intense and unpredictable temperature changes. Here, we focus on studies evaluating phenotypic responses to variable predictable thermal conditions (for which phenotypic plasticity is favoured) and unpredictable thermal environments (for which bet-hedging is favoured), both within and between host and parasitoid generations. We then address the effects of fluctuating temperatures on host-parasitoid interactions, potential cascading effects on the food web, as well as biological control services. We conclude our review by proposing a road map for designing experiments to assess if plasticity and bet-hedging can be adaptive strategies, and to disentangle how fluctuating temperatures can affect the evolution of these two strategies in parasitoids and their hosts.