Long-term effects of elevated pCO levels on the expression of Chaoborus-induced defences in Daphnia pulex.

Increased carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion results in an enrichment of CO in the global carbon cycle. Recent evidence indicates that rising atmospheric CO impacts the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO) in freshwaters. This affects freshwater biota by disrupting chemical communication between predator and prey. One such well-described predator-prey interaction is the phantom midge larva Chaoborus preying on the freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulex. To counter Chaoborus predation, D. pulex develops defensive neckteeth in response to chemical cues. The strength of neckteeth expression is reduced when D. pulex experience elevated pCO levels. This is discussed to directly impair predator perception and results in reduced defence expression. However, it is not known whether there are also long-term effects associated with continuous elevated pCO. Here, we investigated the effect of long-term exposure of D. pulex to elevated pCO levels in a life-table experiment over three generations. Using a flow-through system, we continuously exposed D. pulex to cues released by the predatory larva Chaoborus and control or elevated pCO levels. We determined morphological defence expression in the 2 juvenile instar and the number of neonates as a measure for life-history traits over three successive generations. We detected that elevated pCO significantly reduces the expression of predator-induced morphological defences (i.e. neckteeth) and life-history parameters (i.e. number of neonates) in successive generations. Our data clearly show that at least three generations become more vulnerable to predation without indications of transgenerational acclimation. As Daphnia is a keystone grazer of freshwater ecosystems, this may destabilise population growth rates. In conclusion, long-term effects of pCO-induced reduction of predator-induced plasticity may significantly affect trophic interactions.