The Salicornia europaea potential for phytoremediation of heavy metals in the soils under different times of wastewater irrigation in northwestern Iran.

The use of wastewater for irrigation usually leads to the buildup of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soils. The objective of this study was to assess the capacity of Salicornia europaea L. to uptake heavy metal when irrigated with wastewater at the vegetative, flowering, and reproductive stages of S. europaea for 2 and 4 days (in each stage) in the coastal saline area of Lake Urmia. The concentrations of heavy metals were detected in irrigated water, soil, and plant samples, while transfer factor (TF), bioconcentration factor (BCF), and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) were calculated. The results revealed that metal concentrations in the wastewater were above the permissible limits. The wastewater irrigation caused higher shoot biomass despite the high uptake of PTEs. Levels of Fe and Cu in plants were higher when irrigated with wastewater at the reproductive stage as compared to flowering and vegetative stages. The TF of wastewater-irrigated plants was higher at the flowering stage. TF of different metals at the flowering stage were in order of Zn > Pb > Ni > Cd > Cu, while the BCF increased in the order Cd > Cu > Zn > Ni > Pb. The BAF of the investigated PTEs at the flowering stage increased in the order Cd > Pb > Ni > Zn > Cu. In conclusion, higher Pb and Zn in the shoot indicated that the plant exhibited the phytoextraction mechanism, while Salicornia used a phytostabilization mechanism for roots-Cu, Ni, and Cd.