Ginkgolide B‑mediated therapeutic effects on perioperative neurocognitive dysfunction are associated with the inhibition of iNOS‑mediated production of NO.

Perioperative neurocognitive dysfunction (PND) is a prevalent neurological complication after anesthesia and surgery. Ginkgolide B (GB) has been suggested to improve lipopolysaccharide‑induced learning and memory impairment. The present study aimed to investigate whether GB serves a protective role against PND by inhibiting inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and nitric oxide (NO). Abdominal surgery was performed on 10‑ to 12‑week‑old male C57BL/6 mice under isoflurane anesthesia. Prior to surgery, 1400W (a specific iNOS inhibitor) and GB were administered via intraperitoneal injection. Open field and fear conditioning tests were conducted to assess cognitive function on postoperative days 1 and 3. Biochemical assays were performed to evaluate alterations in NO, malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Western blotting was performed to measure iNOS expression in the hippocampus on postoperative day 1. In addition, hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed to detect the neuronal morphology in the hippocampus. Following treatment with 1400W or GB, surgery‑induced cognitive dysfunction was improved. Compared with the control group, the surgery group exhibited significant overproduction of iNOS and MDA in the hippocampus on postoperative day 1. Higher levels of NO were also detected in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of the surgery group on postoperative day 1. Furthermore, pretreatment with 1400W or GB significantly inhibited the surgery‑induced elevation of NO and MDA in brain tissues. Moreover, GB pretreatment significantly inhibited surgery‑induced downregulation of SOD and upregulation of iNOS. Surgery‑induced increases in neuronal loss and the Bax/Bcl‑2 ratio in the hippocampus were significantly inhibited by pretreatment with GB. Collectively, the results of the present study demonstrated that the therapeutic effects of GB on PND were associated with inhibition of iNOS‑induced NO production, increased SOD, and the alleviation of neuronal loss and apoptosis.