Pioneering polyploids: the impact of whole-genome duplication on biome shifting in New Zealand (Rubiaceae) and (Plantaginaceae).

The role of whole-genome duplication (WGD) in facilitating shifts into novel biomes remains unknown. Focusing on two diverse woody plant groups in New Zealand, (Rubiaceae) and (Plantaginaceae), we investigate how biome occupancy varies with ploidy level, and test the hypothesis that WGD increases the rate of biome shifting. Ploidy levels and biome occupancy (forest, open and alpine) were determined for indigenous species in both clades. The distribution of low-ploidy (: 2, : 6) versus high-ploidy (: 4-10, : 12-18) species across biomes was tested statistically. Estimation of the phylogenetic history of biome occupancy and WGD was performed using time-calibrated phylogenies and the R package BioGeoBEARS. Trait-dependent dispersal models were implemented to determine support for an increased rate of biome shifting among high-ploidy lineages. We find support for a greater than random portion of high-ploidy species occupying multiple biomes. We also find strong support for high-ploidy lineages showing a three- to eightfold increase in the rate of biome shifts. These results suggest that WGD promotes ecological expansion into new biomes.