Surgical treatment of arrhythmias: current status and future directions.

A variety of surgical interventions have evolved for the treatment of intractable or life-threatening arrhythmias unresponsive to conventional pharmacologic or pacemaker therapy. Supraventricular arrhythmias associated with rapid ventricular responses can be indirectly treated with ablation of the atrioventricular conduction system and insertion of a pacemaker. Ventricular tachyarrhythmias have previously been treated with sympathectomy, resection of tissue or revascularization. More recent approaches include the simple ventriculotomy, encircling endocardial ventriculotomy, cryosurgical ablation and insertion of the automatic implantable defibrillator. Refinement of methods to localize more precisely the origin of ventricular arrhythmias may allow design of more direct surgical procedures. The surgical treatment of arrhythmias related to the preexcitation syndromes remains the model of electrophysiologic surgery. It is now feasible to divide accessory pathways with a high degree of success and at low risk in selected patients.