Form and function in the avian pelvis.

The avian pelvis plays a critical role in the hindlimb function of birds, connecting the hindlimb and axial skeleton and serving as the major attachment site for proximal hindlimb musculature. To assess how diversification of locomotor modes in birds has impacted the evolution of avian pelvic morphology, we conducted a two-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis of bird pelves in dorsal and lateral views from 163 species (n = 261) across Aves. We investigated the relationships among pelvic shape and ecology, phylogeny, and allometry, and conducted disparity analyses to understand how pelvic morphospace has been explored through the diversification of Aves. We found that while phylogeny was correlated with shape, locomotor categories were significantly discriminated in morphospace in phylogenetically corrected analyses, as was pelvic size. Major shape trends across Aves distinguishing locomotor categories included the relative area of the preacetabular versus postacetabular ilium, how squat or narrow the pelvis is, and the extent of the caudal pelvic border. Birds adapted for hind limb-propelled swimming had particularly distinctive pelves, with narrow, elongated ilia likely useful for holding the hindlimbs close to the body midline and reducing drag. However, ecology and allometry only account for a small proportion of morphological variation, and in general locomotor groups overlapped substantially in morphospace. These results, alongside disparity through time analyses showing widespread convergence in pelvic morphology throughout the Cenozoic, suggest that avian lineages and ecotypes have extensively explored pelvic morphospace, perhaps aided by a loosening of evolutionary constraints following the evolution of forelimb-powered flight.