IGF, University of Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France.
College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.
Compr Physiol. 2022 Mar 29;12(2):3371-3415. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c210031.
Reproduction, growth, stress, and metabolism are determined by endocrine/neuroendocrine systems that regulate circulating hormone concentrations. All these systems generate rhythms and changes in hormone pulsatility observed in a variety of pathophysiological states. Thus, the output of endocrine/neuroendocrine systems must be regulated within a narrow window of effective hormone concentrations but must also maintain a capacity for plasticity to respond to changing physiological demands. Remarkably most endocrinologists still have a "textbook" view of endocrine gland organization which has emanated from 20 century histological studies on thin 2D tissue sections. However, 21 -century technological advances, including in-depth 3D imaging of specific cell types have vastly changed our knowledge. We now know that various levels of multicellular organization can be found across different glands, that organizational motifs can vary between species and can be modified to enhance or decrease hormonal release. This article focuses on how the organization of cells regulates hormone output using three endocrine/neuroendocrine glands that present different levels of organization and complexity: the adrenal medulla, with a single neuroendocrine cell type; the anterior pituitary, with multiple intermingled cell types; and the pancreas with multiple intermingled cell types organized into distinct functional units. We give an overview of recent methodologies that allow the study of the different components within endocrine systems, particularly their temporal and spatial relationships. We believe the emerging findings about network organization, and its impact on hormone secretion, are crucial to understanding how homeostatic regulation of endocrine axes is carried out within endocrine organs themselves. © 2022 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12:3371-3415, 2022.
生殖、生长、应激和代谢由调节循环激素浓度的内分泌/神经内分泌系统决定。所有这些系统都会产生各种病理生理状态下观察到的激素脉冲的节律和变化。因此，内分泌/神经内分泌系统的输出必须在有效激素浓度的狭窄窗口内进行调节，但也必须保持对不断变化的生理需求做出响应的可塑性。值得注意的是，大多数内分泌学家仍然对内分泌腺组织的“教科书”观点持有的看法，这种观点源于 20 世纪对 2D 组织切片的组织学研究。然而，21 世纪的技术进步，包括对特定细胞类型的深入 3D 成像，极大地改变了我们的知识。我们现在知道，不同的腺体中可以发现各种层次的细胞组织，组织模式可以在物种之间变化，并可以进行修改以增强或减少激素释放。本文使用三种具有不同组织和复杂性水平的内分泌/神经内分泌腺来重点关注细胞组织如何调节激素的输出：肾上腺髓质，具有单一的神经内分泌细胞类型；垂体前叶，具有多种相互混合的细胞类型；以及胰腺，具有组织成不同功能单元的多种相互混合的细胞类型。我们概述了最近允许研究内分泌系统内不同成分的方法，特别是它们的时空关系。我们认为，关于网络组织及其对激素分泌的影响的新发现，对于理解内分泌轴的稳态调节如何在内分泌器官本身内部进行至关重要。© 2022 美国生理学会。综合生理学 12:3371-3415,2022.
