Subgenome dominance and its evolutionary implications in crop domestication and breeding.

Polyploidization or whole-genome duplication (WGD) is a well-known speciation and adaptation mechanism in angiosperms, while subgenome dominance is a crucial phenomenon in allopolyploids, established following polyploidization. The dominant subgenomes contribute more to genome evolution and homoeolog expression bias, both of which confer advantages for short-term phenotypic adaptation and long-term domestication. In this review, we firstly summarize the probable mechanistic basis for subgenome dominance, including the effects of genetic [transposon, genetic incompatibility, and homoeologous exchange (HE)], epigenetic (DNA methylation and histone modification), and developmental and environmental factors on this evolutionary process. We then move to , a typical allopolyploid with subgenome dominance. Polyploidization provides the genome not only with the genomic plasticity for adapting to changeable environments, but also an abundant genetic basis for morphological variation, making it a representative species for subgenome dominance studies. According to the 'two-step theory', experienced genome fractionation twice during WGD, in which most of the genes responding to the environmental cues and phytohormones were over-retained, enhancing subgenome dominance and consequent adaption. More than this, the pangenome of 18 accessions with different morphotypes recently constructed provides further evidence to reveal the impacts of polyploidization and subgenome dominance on intraspecific diversification in . Above and beyond the fundamental understanding of WGD and subgenome dominance in and other plants, however, it remains elusive why subgenome dominance has tissue- and spatiotemporal-specific features and could shuffle between homoeologous regions of different subgenomes by environments in allopolyploids. We lastly propose acceleration of the combined application of resynthesized allopolyploids, omics technology, and genome editing tools to deepen mechanistic investigations of subgenome dominance, both genetic and epigenetic, in a variety of species and environments. We believe that the implications of genomic and genetic basis of a variety of ecologically, evolutionarily, and agriculturally interesting traits coupled with subgenome dominance will be uncovered and aid in making new discoveries and crop breeding.