Assessment of filling pressures and fluid overload in heart failure: an updated perspective.

Congestion plays a major role in the pathogenesis, presentation, and prognosis of heart failure and is an important therapeutic target. However, its severity and organ and compartment distribution vary widely among patients, illustrating the complexity of this phenomenon. Although clinical symptoms and signs are useful to assess congestion and manage volume status in individual patients, they have limited sensitivity and do not allow identification of congestion phenotype. This leads to diagnostic uncertainty and hampers therapeutic decision-making. The present article provides an updated overview of circulating biomarkers, imaging modalities (ie, cardiac and extracardiac ultrasound), and invasive techniques that might help clinicians to identify different congestion profiles and guide the management strategy in this diverse population of high-risk patients with heart failure.