Detecting Physiological Responses Using Multimodal Earbud Sensors.

Continuous stress exposure negatively impacts mental and physical well-being. Physiological arousal due to stress affects heartbeat frequency, changes breathing pattern and peripheral temperature, among several other bodily responses. Traditionally stress detection is performed by collecting signals such as electrocardiogram (ECG), respiration, and skin conductance response using uncomfortable sensors such as a chestband. In this study, we use earbuds that passively measure photoplethysmography (PPG), core body temperature, and inertial measurements. We have conducted a lab study exposing 18 participants to an evaluated speech task and additional tasks aimed at increasing stress or promoting relaxation. We simultaneously collected PPG, ECG, impedance cardiography (ICG), and blood pressure using laboratory grade equipment as reference measurements. We show that the earbud PPG sensor can reliably capture heart rate and heart rate variability. We further show that earbud signals can be used to classify the physiological responses associated with stress with 91.30% recall, 80.52% precision, and 85.12% F1-score using a random forest classifier with leave-one-subject-out cross-validation. The accuracy can further be improved through multi-modal sensing. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using earbuds for passively monitoring users' physiological responses.