Biosynthesis, distribution, nutritional and organoleptic properties of bitter compounds in fruit and vegetables.

Compounds that confer a bitter taste on fruits and vegetables (FAVs) play crucial roles in both plant defense and health promotion. This review details the current knowledge of the distribution, properties (toxicity, pharmacological effects and receptors) and environmental plant responses relating to the biosynthesis, catabolism and transcriptional regulation of 53 bitter plant metabolites in diverse species of FAVs. Some bitter compounds, such as flavonoids, are common in all plant species and make a minor contribution to bitter flavor, but many are synthesized only in specific taxa. They make major contributions to the bitter taste of the corresponding species and some also have significant pharmacological effects. Levels of bitter metabolites are genetically determined, but various environmental cues can affect their final concentration during preharvest development and postharvest storage processes. Molecular approaches are helping to unravel the mechanisms of biosynthesis and regulation of bitter compounds in diverse crop species. This review not only discusses the theoretical basis for utilizing breeding programs and other agricultural technologies to produce FAVs with improved safety, favorable taste and healthier profiles, but also suggests new directions for the utilization of bitter compounds in FAVs for the development of natural pesticides and health-promoting medicines.