Hope and cancer.

Two models of hope have predominated in the literature pertaining to cancer-Snyder's "Hope Theory" and Herth's hope model-both of which have produced brief self-report measures. Growing evidence demonstrates that hope, as operationalized in these models, is associated with a number of psychological variables in individuals with cancer, including depression, distress, coping, symptom burden, and posttraumatic growth. Emerging evidence also suggests that hope may predict probability of survival in advanced cancer. Surveys show that patients and families generally prefer healthcare communication that authentically conveys prognosis; such communication is not associated with decreased hope, but may actually foster hope. Finally, several interventions have been developed to enhance hope in people with cancer, which generally demonstrate medium effects.