Wing kinematics measurement and aerodynamics of hovering droneflies with wing damage.

In this study, we performed successive unilateral and bilateral wing shearing to simulate wing damage in droneflies () and measured the wing kinematics using high-speed photography technology. Two different shearing types were considered in the artificial wing damage. The aerodynamic force and power consumption were obtained by numerical method. Our major findings are the following. Different shearing methods have little influence on the kinematics, forces and energy consumption of insects. Following wing damage, among the potential strategies to adjust the three Euler angles of the wing, adjusting stroke angle () in isolation, or combing the adjustment of stroke angle () with pitch angle (), contributed most to the change in vertical force. The balance of horizontal thrust can be restored by the adjustment of deviation angle () under the condition of unilateral wing damage. Considering zero elastic energy storage, the mass-specific power () increases significantly following wing damage. However, the increase in mass-specific power with 100% elastic energy storage () is very small. The extra cost of the unilateral wing damage is that the energy consumption of the damaged wing and intact wing is highly asymmetrical when zero elastic energy storage is considered. The insects may alleviate the problems of increasing power consumption and asymmetric power distribution by storage and reuse of the negative inertial work of the wing.