Future therapeutic strategies in the treatment of extrapulmonary neuroendocrine carcinoma: a review.

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are rare malignancies arising most commonly in the gastrointestinal and bronchopulmonary systems. Neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs) are a subgroup of NENs characterised by aggressive tumour biology, poor differentiation and dismal prognosis. Most NEC primary lesions arise in the pulmonary system. However, a small proportion arise outside of the lung and are termed extrapulmonary (EP)-, poorly differentiated (PD)-NECs. Patients with local or locoregional disease may benefit from surgical excision; however, this is often not an option, due to late presentation. To date, treatment has mirrored that of small-cell lung cancer, with platinum-etoposide forming the basis of first-line treatment. There is a lack of consensus in relation to the most effective second-line treatment option. Low incidence, an absence of representative preclinical models and a lack of understanding of the tumour microenvironment all present challenges to drug development in this disease group. However, progress made in elucidating the mutational landscape of EP-PD-NEC and the observations made in several clinical trials are paving the way towards improving outcomes for these patients. The optimisation and strategic delivery of chemotherapeutic interventions according to tumour characteristics and the utilisation of targeted and immune therapies in clinical studies have yielded mixed results. Targeted therapies that complement specific genetic aberrations are under investigation, including AURKA inhibitors in those with amplifications, BRAF inhibitors in those with mutations and EGFR suppression, and Ataxia Telangiectasia and Rad3-related inhibitors in patients with mutations. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have conferred promising results in several clinical trials, particularly with dual ICIs and in combination with targeted therapy or chemotherapy. However, further prospective investigations are required to elucidate the impact of programmed cell death ligand 1 expression, tumour mutational burden and microsatellite instability on response. This review aims to explore the most recent developments in the treatment of EP-PD-NEC and contribute towards the requirement for clinical guidance founded on prospective evidence.