An update on the management of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding.

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) continues to be a common gastrointestinal emergency that carries significant morbidity and mortality. The epidemiology of UGIB has been changing over the last few decades with an overall decrease in peptic ulcer disease and increase in the prevalence of other etiologies including vascular lesions and malignancy. Appropriate risk assessment and patient stratification are crucial to ensuring that optimal care is delivered to patients and some risk assessment tools have shown excellent ability to define a low-risk group who can be managed as outpatients safely. Regardless of the etiology of UGIB, resuscitative interventions by primary care providers remain the most important initial measures to improve the outcome for patients including hemodynamic stabilization, an appropriate blood transfusion strategy, with or without acid-lowering agents, while also providing subsequent urgent endoscopic assessment and intervention. In addition, with increasing use of antithrombotic agents in clinical practice and its associated risk of bleeding, the management of such agents in the acute setting has become a real challenge to all physicians. In this article, we provide an up-to-date, evidence-based, practical review of recent changes and advances in UGIB with a focus on non-variceal etiologies.