Linked disturbance in the temperate forest: Earthworms, deer, and canopy gaps.

Despite the large body of theory concerning multiple disturbances, relatively few attempts have been made to test the theoretical assumptions of how and if disturbances interact. Of particular importance is whether disturbance events are linked, as this can influence the probability and intensity of ecological change. Disturbances are linked when one disturbance event increases or decreases the likelihood or extent of another. To this end, we used two long-term, multi-disturbance experiments in northern Wisconsin to determine whether earthworm invasion is linked to canopy gap creation and white-tailed deer browsing. These three disturbances are common and influential within North American temperate forests, making any interactions among them particularly important to understand. We expected both deer and canopy gaps to favor invasive earthworms, particularly species that live close to or on the soil surface. However, we found only partial support of our hypotheses, as both deer exclosures and canopy gaps decreased earthworms in each experiment. Further, earthworm density increased the most over time in areas far from the gap center and in areas with deer present. Deer exclosures primarily decreased Aporrectodea and Lumbricus species, while gaps decreased Dendrobaena and Lumbricus species. Our findings show that earthworm invasion is linked to deer presence and gap-creating disturbances, which provides new insight in multiple disturbance theory, aboveground-belowground dynamics, and temperate forest management.