Comparison of toxicity of silver nanomaterials and silver nitrate on developing zebrafish embryos: Bioavailability, osmoregulatory and oxidative stress.

The mechanisms of toxicity of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) to the early life stages of freshwater fish, and the relative hazard compared to dissolved metals, is only partially understood. In the present study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to lethal concentrations of silver nitrate (AgNO) or silver (Ag) ENMs (primary size 42.5 ± 10.2 nm). The 96 h-LC for AgNO was 32.8 ± 0.72 μg Ag L (mean ± 95% CI) compared to 6.5 ± 0.4 mg L of the whole material for Ag ENMs; with the ENMs being orders of magnitude less toxic than the metal salt. The EC for hatching success was 30.5 ± 1.4 μg Ag L and 6.04 ± 0.4 mg L for AgNO and Ag ENMs, respectively. Further sub-lethal exposures were performed with the estimated LC concentrations for both AgNO or Ag ENMs over 96 h, where about 3.7% of the total Ag as AgNO was internalised, as measured by Ag accumulation in the dechorionated embryos. However, for the ENM exposures, nearly all (99.8%) of the total Ag was associated with chorion; indicating the chorion as an effective barrier to protect the embryo in the short term. Calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) depletion was induced in embryos by both forms of Ag, but hyponatremia was more pronounced in the nano form. Total glutathione (tGSH) levels declined in embryos exposed to both Ag forms, but a superior depletion occurred with the nano form. Nevertheless, oxidative stress was mild as superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity stayed uniform and the sodium pump (Na/K-ATPase) activity had no appreciable inhibition compared to the control. In conclusion, AgNO was more toxic to the early life stage zebrafish than the Ag ENMs, still differences were found in the exposure and toxic mechanisms of both Ag forms.