Particle Size Determines the Phytotoxicity of ZnO Nanoparticles in Rice ( L.) Revealed by Spatial Imaging Techniques.

To understand the nanotoxicity effects on plants, it is necessary to systematically study the distribution of NPs . Herein, elemental and particle-imaging techniques were used to unravel the size effects of ZnO NPs on phytotoxicity. Small-sized ZnO NPs (5, 20, and 50 nm) showed an inhibitory effect on the length and biomass of rice ( L.) used as a model plant. ZnO NP nanotoxicity caused rice root cell membrane damage, increased the malondialdehyde content, and activated antioxidant enzymes. As a control, the same dose of Zn salt did not affect the physiological and biochemical indices of rice, suggesting that the toxicity is caused by the entry of the ZnO NPs and not the dissolved Zn. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy analysis revealed that ZnO NPs accumulated in the rice root vascular tissues of the rhizodermis and procambium. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy confirmed that the NPs were internalized to the root tissues. These results suggest that ZnO NPs may exist in the rice root system and that their particle size could be a crucial factor in determining toxicity. This study provides evidence of the size-dependent phytotoxicity of ZnO NPs.