Ontogenetic morphological changes of the venom apparatus in 4 eupelmid egg parasitoids.

Parasitoid wasps, notably egg parasitoids of the family Eupelmidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), a key natural enemy of insect pests, offer a sustainable approach to pest management in agriculture. This study investigated the venom apparatus's developmental dynamics across 4 species of eupelmid egg parasitoids: , , and . A comprehensive anatomical investigation revealed differences in the dimensions of the venom apparatus across different developmental stages in adult females. We found that the venom apparatus of these 4 studied species consists of a venom gland and a reservoir with an associated Dufour's gland. As the length of post-emergence increases, a significant enlargement in the venom apparatus is evident across all the studied parasitoid species. Notably, consistently exhibites the shortest venom gland length, whereas that of is the longest among the observed species. At the high day age, the width of venom glands of the 2 species surpasses those of the species; for the volume of the venom reservoir, there is a steady increase in all 4 species before the age of 6–7 days, with a decline on 8th day, especially for . This research provided new insights into the developmental trajectories of venom apparatus in eupelmid egg parasitoids and the potential impact of venom potency on their success.