Mechanisms of Uptake and Translocation of Thallium in Vegetables: An X-ray Fluorescence Microspectroscopic Investigation.

Most nonoccupational human exposure to thallium (Tl) occurs via consumption of contaminated food crops. cultivars are common crops that can accumulate more than 500 μg Tl g. Knowledge of Tl uptake and translocation mechanisms in cultivars is fundamental to developing methods to inhibit Tl uptake or conversely for potential use in phytoremediation of polluted soils. cultivars (25 in total) were subjected to Tl dosing to screen for Tl accumulation. Seven high Tl-accumulating varieties were selected for follow-up Tl dosing experiments. The highest Tl accumulating cultivars were analyzed by synchrotron-based micro-X-ray fluorescence to investigate the Tl distribution and synchrotron-based X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) to unravel Tl chemical speciation. The cultivars exhibited different Tl tolerance and accumulation patterns with some reaching up to 8300 μg Tl g. The translocation factors for all the cultivars were >1 with var. (kale) having the highest translocation factor of 167. In this cultivar, Tl is preferentially localized in the venules toward the apex and along the foliar margins and in minute hot spots in the leaf blade. This study revealed through scanning electron microscopy and X-ray fluorescence analysis that highly Tl-enriched crystals occur in the stoma openings of the leaves. The finding is further validated by XANES spectra that show that Tl(I) dominates in the aqueous as well as in the solid form. The high accumulation of Tl in these crops has important implications for food safety and results of this study help to understand the mechanisms of Tl uptake and translocation in these crops.