Diffusion Bonding 321-Grade Stainless Steel: Failure and Multimodal Characterization.

Vacuum diffusion-bonded printed circuit heat exchangers are an attractive choice for the high-temperature, high-pressure demands of next-generation energy applications. However, early reports show that the high-temperature materials desired for these applications suffer from poor bond strengths due to precipitation at the bond line, preventing grain boundary migration. In this study, a diffusion bond of the high-temperature stainless steel grade 321H is investigated, and poor mechanical properties are found to be caused by Ti(C, N) precipitation at the bond line. Through in situ studies, it is found that Ti diffuses from the bulk to the mating surfaces at high temperatures. The Ti subsequently precipitates and, for the first time, an interaction between Ti(C, N) and Al/Mg-oxide precipitates at the bond line is observed, where Ti(C, N) nucleates on the oxides forming a core-shell structure. The results indicate that small amounts of particular alloying elements can greatly impact diffusion bond quality, prompting further research into the microstructural evolution that occurs during bonding conditions.