The ticking clock in the dark: Review of biological rhythms in cave invertebrates.

Circadian clocks, internal mechanisms that generate 24-hour rhythms, play a crucial role in coordinating biological events with day-night cycles. In light-deprived environments such as caves, species, particularly isolated obligatory troglobites, may exhibit evolutionary adaptations in biological rhythms due to light exposure. To explore rhythm expression in these settings, we conducted a comprehensive literature review on invertebrate chronobiology in global subterranean ecosystems, analyzing 44 selected studies out of over 480 identified as of September 2023. These studies revealed significant taxonomic diversity, primarily among terrestrial species like Coleoptera, with research concentrated in the United States, Italy, France, Australia, and Brazil, and a notable gap in African records. Troglobite species displayed a higher incidence of aperiodic behavior, while troglophiles showed a robust association with rhythm expression. Locomotor activity was the most studied aspect (>60%). However, approximately 4% of studies lacked information on periodicity or rhythm asynchrony, and limited research under constant light conditions hindered definitive conclusions. This review underscores the need to expand chronobiological research globally, encompassing diverse geographical regions and taxa, to deepen our understanding of biological rhythms in subterranean species. Such insights are crucial for preserving the resilience of subsurface ecosystems facing threats like climate change and habitat loss.