Management of non-indigenous species in Macaronesia: Misconceptions and alerts to decision-makers.

Human-induced pressures have led to substantial changes in marine ecosystems worldwide, with the introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS) emerging as a significant threat to ecological, economic, and social aspects. The Macaronesian islands, comprising the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, and Cabo Verde archipelagos, are regions where the regional economy is dependent on marine resources (e.g., marine traffic, ecotourism and fisheries). Despite their importance, concerted efforts to manage marine biological invasions in Macaronesia have been scarce. In this context, the current study aims to contribute to the much-needed debate on biosecurity measures in this unique insular ecosystem to prevent and mitigate the impact of NIS. By adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria, this work validated and analyzed 260 documents providing insights into the management of NIS in Macaronesia until 2022. These documents revealed the presence of 29 Invasive Alien Species (IAS), most of which are misconceptions regarding this terminology. Most studies focused on the stages of early detection, rapid response, and eradication across the archipelagos. Cabo Verde had comparatively fewer studies. The most common techniques include monitoring/sampling, literature reviews, and taxonomic reviews. NIS introduction pathways were mainly attributed to transport (stowaway) and unaided migration, with ship fouling, ballast water, rafting, ocean currents, and tropicalization being also identified as significant contributors. This systematic review highlights the current efforts to establish robust biosecurity protocols in Macaronesia and emphasizes the urgent need to safeguard the region's ecological, economic, and social well-being.