Quantifying remediation of chlorinated volatile compounds by sulfidated nano zerovalent iron treatment using numerical modeling and CSIA.

Sulfidated nanoscale zerovalent iron (S-nZVI) has demonstrated promising reactivity and longevity for remediating chlorinated volatile compounds (cVOC) contaminants in laboratory tests. However, its effectiveness in field applications remains inadequately evaluated. This study provides the first quantitative evaluation of the long-term effectiveness of carboxymethyl cellulose-stabilized S-nZVI (CMC-S-nZVI) at a cVOC-contaminated field site. A reactive transport model-based numerical approach delineates the change in cVOC concentrations and carbon isotope values (i.e., δC from compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA)) caused by dissolution of dense non-aqueous phase liquid, sorption, and pathway-specific degradation and production, respectively. This delineation reveals quantitative insights into remediation effectiveness typically difficult to obtain, including extent of degradation, contributions of different degradation pathways, and degradation rate coefficients. Significantly, even a year after CMC-S-nZVI application, degradation remains an important process effectively removing various cVOC contaminants (i.e., chlorinated ethenes, 1,2-dichloroethanes, and chlorinated methanes) at an extent varying from 5 %-62 %. Although the impacts of CMC-S-nZVI abundance on degradation vary for different cVOC and for different sampling locations at the site, for the primary site contaminants of tetrachloroethene and trichloroethene, their predominance of dichloroelimination pathway (≥ 88 %), high degradation rate coefficient (0.4-1.7 d), and occurrence at locations with relatively high CMC-S-nZVI abundance strongly indicate the effectiveness of abiotic remediation. These quantitative assessments support that CMC-S-nZVI supports sustainable ZVI-based remediation. Further, the novel numerical approach presented in this study provides a powerful tool for quantitative cVOC remediation assessments at complex field sites where multiple processes co-occur to control both concentration and CSIA data.