Spatiotemporal and weather effects on the reproductive success of piping plovers on Prince Edward Island, Canada.

Piping plovers ( sp.) rank among North America's most endangered shorebird species, facing compounding environmental challenges that reduce habitat availability and suppress recruitment and survival rates. Despite these challenges, research on the direct effects of climate variability and extremes on their breeding ecology remains limited. Here, we employ a spatiotemporal modelling approach to investigate how location, nest timing and weather conditions influence reproductive success rates in a small breeding population of in Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada from 2011 to 2023. Analysis of 40 years of monitoring records from a subset of nesting sites revealed that flooding and predation have been persistent sources of reproductive failures in this population, with unexplained losses increasing in recent years. Contrary to our hypotheses, our modelled results did not support a negative impact of extreme high temperatures and strong precipitation events on reproductive outcomes. Instead, we identified a positive effect of and no effect of strong precipitation, perhaps due to limited exposure to extreme high temperatures (>32°C) and context-specific risks associated with precipitation-induced flooding. However, trends in regional climate change are likely to increase exposure to-and the influence of-such factors in the near future. Our models also identified spatiotemporal variability in apparent hatch success over the study period, as well as worse hatch outcomes across popular beachgoing regions and for delayed nesting attempts. While our results offer preliminary insights into factors affecting breeding success in this population, further research will be imperative to enhance understanding of constraints on recruitment. To this end, we encourage the collection and analysis of additional time-series data of prey populations, human activities, fine-scale weather data and predator/flood risks associated with each nest on PEI.