Rare earth elements and warming: Implications for adult mussel health and sperm quality.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of europium (Eu) exposure (10 μg/L), warming (a 4 °C increase), and their combination on Mytilus galloprovincialis. Biochemical and histopathological changes in adult mussels were evaluated after a 28-day exposure period. Additionally, biochemical and physiological alterations in sperm were measured following a 30-min exposure period. The overall responses to each treatment were assessed using the Integrated Biological Response index version 2 (IBRv2). In adult mussels, warming elevated metabolism and activated glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), leading to redox imbalance and cellular damage. Europium exposure alone slightly enhanced metabolism and GSTs activity, resulting in cellular damage and histopathological injuries in digestive tubules. The combined exposure to Eu and warming was the most detrimental treatment for adults, as indicated by the highest IBRv2 value. This treatment slightly increased metabolism and uniquely elevated the activity of antioxidant enzymes, as well as GSTs and carboxylesterases. Despite these responses, they were inadequate to prevent redox imbalance, cellular damage, and histopathological injuries in digestive tubules and gills. Regarding sperm, warming reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production but raised lipid peroxidation levels. Sperm exposed to this treatment also increased their oxygen consumption and exhibited reduced velocity. The IBRv2 indicated that Eu was the most harmful treatment for sperm, significantly increasing ROS production and notably decreasing sperm velocity. When combined with warming, Eu elevated superoxide anion (O) production, lowered sperm velocity, and increased oxygen consumption. This study underscores the importance of investigating the effects of rare earth elements and their interaction with climate change-related factors.