Generating kidney organoids based on developmental nephrology.

Over the past decade, the induction protocols for the two types of kidney organoids (nephron organoids and ureteric bud organoids) from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have been established based on the knowledge gained in developmental nephrology. Kidney organoids are now used for disease modeling and drug screening, but they also have potential as tools for clinical transplantation therapy. One of the options to achieve this goal would be to assemble multiple renal progenitor cells (nephron progenitor, ureteric bud, stromal progenitor) to reproduce the organotypic kidney structure from PSCs. At least from mouse PSCs, all the three progenitors have been induced and assembled into such "higher order" kidney organoids. We will provide an overview of the developmental nephrology required for the induction of renal progenitors and discuss recent advances and remaining challenges of kidney organoids for clinical transplantation therapy.