Inequality in the shadow: The role of private tutoring in SES achievement gaps.

Despite the rapid growth of private tutoring, previous studies have not systematically addressed its implications for socioeconomic status (SES) disparities in education, as they have only separately examined differential access to and the effects of private tutoring. This study directly estimates the causal contribution of private tutoring to SES disparities in educational achievement and cognitive ability among Chinese middle school students. Using nationally representative longitudinal data and a novel gap-closing approach, we find that unequal access to private tutoring does not uniformally result in significant learning gaps between high- and low-SES students. When comparing disadvantaged students with their most socioeconomically advantaged peers, we find that the proportions of SES disparities attributed to differences in participation in and intensity of private tutoring increase with these differences. These findings have important policy implications for reducing SES disparities in learning outcomes.