Distribution and habitat use patterns of the endangered Central American clouded oncilla (Leopardus pardinoides oncilla) in Costa Rica.

Montane cloud forests are highly threatened ecosystems that are vulnerable to climate change. These complex habitats harbor many species that suffer the negative consequences of this global phenomenon, such as shifts in their distribution and habitat use. The Central American clouded oncilla (Leopardus pardinoides oncilla) is the smallest and most endangered wild cat in Mesoamerica and is primarily reported in cloud forests throughout its distribution. The species is poorly understood, with no studies conducted in Central America assessing its habitat preferences. To bridge this knowledge gap, we sampled two mountain ranges in Costa Rica with camera traps and conducted an occupancy analysis to understand the anthropogenic and environmental features that influence oncilla habitat use within them. Additionally, we conducted spatial predictions of habitat use across its northern and southern range in Costa Rica to identify priority conservation areas for the species. We found that Central American clouded oncilla habitat use is driven primarily by environmental factors. Our results showed that oncillas select habitats with denser tree cover at high elevations, closer to permanent water sources, which may provide them with high prey density and a favorable habitat structure for their survival. Spatial predictions identified two main regions as conservation priority areas where threat mitigation efforts and monitoring should be implemented: the Caribbean slope of the Talamanca mountains, and the Arenal-Monteverde forest complex. The occupancy modeling approach turned out to be very useful to assess the spatial associations of the species with the environment and mapping the conservation priority areas. Future research and mitigation actions should focus on potential threats that could negatively impact Central American clouded oncilla populations and habitat use, including the role of mesopredators and feral species.