The effects of intersexual interactions on survival can drive the evolution of female ornaments in the absence of mate limitation.

The evolution of sexual ornaments in animals is typically attributed to reproductive competition. However, sexual ornaments also arise in contexts where the ornamented sex is neither mate nor gamete limited, and explanations for ornamentation in these cases remain incomplete. In many species, particularly those with slow life histories, lifetime reproductive success depends more strongly on adult survival than fecundity, and survival can depend on intersexual interactions. We develop a population genetic model to investigate how the effect of intersexual interactions on survival may contribute to ornament evolution in the absence of competition for mates. Using female ornamentation in polygynous mating systems as a case study, we show that, indeed, ornaments can evolve when the ornament functions to modify interactions with males in ways that enhance a female's own survival. The evolutionary dynamics depend qualitatively on the specific behavioral mechanism by which the ornament modifies social interactions. In all cases, the ornament's long-term persistence is ultimately determined by the coevolution of the male locus that determines how males affect female survival. We outline the scenarios that are most likely to favor the evolution of female ornaments through the effects of intersexual interactions on survival, and we urge empirical researchers to consider the potential for this social selection mechanism to shape traits of interest across taxa.