Repurposing an Endogenous CRISPR-Cas System to Generate and Study Subtle Mutations in Bacteriophages.

While bacteriophage applications benefit from effective phage engineering, selecting the desired genotype after subtle modifications remains challenging. Here, we describe a two-phase endogenous CRISPR-Cas-based phage engineering approach that enables selection of small defined edits in phage ZF40. We designed plasmids containing sequences homologous to ZF40 and a mini-CRISPR array. The plasmids allowed genome editing through homologous recombination and counter-selection against non-recombinant phage genomes using an endogenous type I-E CRISPR-Cas system. With this technique, we first deleted target genes and subsequently restored loci with modifications. This two-phase approach circumvented major challenges in subtle phage modifications, including inadequate sequence distinction for CRISPR-Cas counter-selection and the requirement of a protospacer-adjacent motif, limiting sequences that can be modified. Distinct 20-bp barcodes were incorporated through engineering as differential target sites for programmed CRISPR-Cas activity, which allowed quantification of phage variants in mixed populations. This method aids studies and applications that require mixtures of similar phages.