Carcinogenic Mechanisms of Hexavalent Chromium: From DNA Breaks to Chromosome Instability and Neoplastic Transformation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a well-established human carcinogen, yet the mechanisms by which it leads to carcinogenic outcomes is still unclear. As a driving factor in its carcinogenic mechanism, Cr(VI) causes DNA double strand breaks and break-repair deficiency, leading to the development of chromosome instability. Therefore, the aim of this review is to discuss studies assessing Cr(VI)-induced DNA double strand breaks, chromosome damage and instability, and neoplastic transformation including cell culture, experimental animal, human pathology and epidemiology studies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent findings confirm Cr(VI) induces DNA double strand breaks, chromosome instability and neoplastic transformation in exposed cells, animals and humans, emphasizing these outcomes as key steps in the mechanism of Cr(VI) carcinogenesis. Moreover, recent findings suggest chromosome instability is a key phenotype in Cr(VI)-neoplastically transformed clones and is an inheritable and persistent phenotype in exposed cells, once more suggesting chromosome instability as central in the carcinogenic mechanism. Although limited, some studies have demonstrated DNA damage and epigenetic modulation are also key outcomes in biopsies from chromate workers that developed lung cancer. Additionally, we also summarized new studies showing Cr(VI) causes genotoxic and clastogenic effects in cells from wildlife, such as sea turtles, whales, and alligators. Overall, across the literature, it is clear that Cr(VI) causes neoplastic transformation and lung cancer. Many studies measured Cr(VI)-induced increases in DNA double strand breaks, the most lethal type of breaks clearly showing that Cr(VI) is genotoxic. Unrepaired or inaccurately repaired breaks lead to the development of chromosome instability, which is a common phenotype in Cr(VI) exposed cells, animals, and humans. Indeed, many studies show Cr(VI) induces both structural and numerical chromosome instability. Overall, the large body of literature strongly supports the conclusion that Cr(VI) causes DNA double strand breaks, inhibits DNA repair and chromosome instability, which are key to the development of Cr(VI)-induced cell transformation.