Foliar spraying of carbon dots reduces cadmium accumulation in rice by regulating rhizosphere immobilization, root development, and subcellular distribution.

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal widespread in rice paddies and threatens food safety and human health. Foliar exposure represents a cost-effective, simple, and time-independent approach to enhance rice resistance and minimize Cd accumulation. Herein, foliar spraying of carbon dots (CDs) was found to significantly reduce Cd accumulation in rice roots and shoots by 31.51 % and 17.93 %, respectively. Gene expression and mineral nutrient analyses indicated that CDs exposure inhibited Cd uptake by suppressing OsNramp1 and increasing competition of Fe and Mn with Cd for OsNramp5. Besides, CDs exposure down-regulated OsHMA2 for Cd transport from roots to aerial parts and up-regulated OsHMA3 for Cd vacuole sequestration. Additionally, CDs treatment promoted rice root development by increasing root biomass, cell walls, and mechanical resistance, which helped to anchor rice plants and impede Cd uptake. Furthermore, CDs spraying increased the organic carbon content and altered the microbial communities in the rice rhizosphere by increasing root exudation. This process facilitated the binding of dissolved Cd in pore water to organic matter and iron‑manganese oxides, ultimately reducing the bioavailability of Cd. This study underscores the effectiveness and mechanism of simple foliar spraying of CDs to mitigate Cd accumulation in rice.