Sex, Gender, and COPD.

Sex and gender have emerged as critical considerations relevant to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Sex differences in lung development and physiologic response to hormones and environmental exposures influence COPD susceptibility, progression, severity, morbidity, and mortality. Gender has been poorly measured in the context of COPD, and gendered exposures further impact biology. The hormonal milieu is critical to study across the life course. Differences in immunity and inflammation likely impact sex- and gender-related features of COPD. Emerging evidence from multiple types of omics data is revealing new genes and pathways to consider as relevant to sex- and gender-divergent features of COPD. Much research to date has focused on autosomes, but the growing awareness of a role for allosomes is highlighting knowledge gaps. Reproductive aging impacts lung function and requires more investigation. Network medicine holds promise as an approach to sex and gender omics to uncover drivers of COPD in men and women.