Does the instructional approach really matter? A comparative study of the impact of online and in-person instruction on learner engagement.

To deliver high-quality courses across various instructional environments, instructors must consider variations in learner engagement. However, limited attention has been paid to whether online and in-person teaching approaches differ in terms of their effects on learner engagement in language learning environments. To fill this void, we aim to investigate the differences in overall and three specific types of engagement between online and in-person classrooms. The study is based on 168 learners in China who attended online and in-person English as a foreign language (EFL) course, respectively, across two semesters. This research utilized the mixed methods approach, involving the quantitative and qualitive strands. Firstly, t-tests revealed that, although participants positively rated their engagement in online and in-person courses, they evaluated online instruction less favorable in terms of overall engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement compared to in-person instruction. They also reported similar levels of behavioral engagement. Secondly, an open survey and interviews revealed these differences were primarily caused by the limited interaction, learners' insufficient digital skills, their lack of self-regulation, and instructors' inadequate technological pedagogical content knowledge online, while the flexibility of online learning likely compromised the behavioral engagement difference. We discussed the findings in light of self-determination theory (SDT), drawing pedagogical implications for language teaching and policymaking for delivery of engaging offline, online, and hybrid language programs in the future.