Progress in three-dimensional (3D) printed foods for dysphagia patients: Food sources, processing techniques, printability, nutrition, acceptability, and safety aspects.

Dysphagia is a deglutition difficulty that is more prevalent among the elderly population. This review focused on progress in the development of 3D-printed foods (3DPFs) for dysphagia patients, specifically, on the type of food sources used, processing techniques involved, and the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) category, nutrition, acceptability, and safety aspects. Due to the unappetizing nature of typical dysphagia meals, 3D food printing (3DFP) is regarded as a promising technology for developing nutritious and appetizing meals for dysphagia patients. The addition of hydrocolloids such as gums, starches, gelatin, and others, during pre-processing, has enabled the use of non-printable food sources that are rich in nutrients and health benefits such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, and roots in the development of dysphagia-orientated 3DPFs, along with various processing methods such size reduction operations, mixing techniques, and thermal processes. Together, these processes can enhance printability, IDDSI compliance, and the structural stability of non-printable food materials in the development of 3D-printed dysphagia-orientated diets. However, the acceptability of these meals among dysphagia patients needs to be thoroughly investigated to validate the role of 3DFP for nutrition personalization, and improved acceptance. The food safety risks associated with this technology challenge its practicality as an effective dysphagia management strategy, but through the establishment of regulations, such risks can be mitigated. Collaboration among dysphagia professionals in hospitals and food scientists and technologists is necessary to foster the integration of different expertise for dysphagia management.