Translational Advances in Oncogene and Tumor-Suppressor Gene Research.

Cancer, characterized by the uncontrolled proliferation of cells, is one of the leading causes of death globally, with approximately one in five people developing the disease in their lifetime. While many driver genes were identified decades ago, and most cancers can be classified based on morphology and progression, there is still a significant gap in knowledge about genetic aberrations and nuclear DNA damage. The study of two critical groups of genes-tumor suppressors, which inhibit proliferation and promote apoptosis, and oncogenes, which regulate proliferation and survival-can help to understand the genomic causes behind tumorigenesis, leading to more personalized approaches to diagnosis and treatment. Aberration of tumor suppressors, which undergo two-hit and loss-of-function mutations, and oncogenes, activated forms of proto-oncogenes that experience one-hit and gain-of-function mutations, are responsible for the dysregulation of key signaling pathways that regulate cell division, such as p53, Rb, Ras/Raf/ERK/MAPK, PI3K/AKT, and Wnt/β-catenin. Modern breakthroughs in genomics research, like next-generation sequencing, have provided efficient strategies for mapping unique genomic changes that contribute to tumor heterogeneity. Novel therapeutic approaches have enabled personalized medicine, helping address genetic variability in tumor suppressors and oncogenes. This comprehensive review examines the molecular mechanisms behind tumor-suppressor genes and oncogenes, the key signaling pathways they regulate, epigenetic modifications, tumor heterogeneity, and the drug resistance mechanisms that drive carcinogenesis. Moreover, the review explores the clinical application of sequencing techniques, multiomics, diagnostic procedures, pharmacogenomics, and personalized treatment and prevention options, discussing future directions for emerging technologies.