Monitoring honeybee colonies under imidacloprid exposure based on smart beehive system.

As crucial pollinators, honeybees play a significant role in global crop production. However, substantial honeybee colony losses have been observed in recent years, often associated with pesticide use. Despite numerous studies indicating that pesticide exposure threatens bee survival, reproduction, and pollination capabilities, our understanding of its dynamic impact at the colony level remains limited. In this study, we employed colony monitoring equipment and visual inspections to assess the health dynamics of honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera ligustica) exposed to varying concentrations of imidacloprid. Our findings revealed that both high and sub-lethal concentrations of imidacloprid negatively impacted colony population, brood rearing, foraging activities, colony weight, and temperature regulation. High concentration exposure also led to queen loss. The damage patterns varied with the concentration of imidacloprid exposure. Under low concentration exposure, colonies exhibited progressive sublethal effects, initially affecting foraging, brood care, and food intake, gradually leading to a decline in colony population, weight, and temperature. In contrast, high concentration exposure caused rapid bee mortality, directly impairing various collective activity levels, but in the short term, it reduced exposure opportunities for some bees and larvae. This study enhances our understanding of the differential impacts of imidacloprid concentrations on honeybee colonies and underscores the need for further research at the colony level.