Global perspectives on tuberculosis in prisons and incarceration centers - Risk factors, priority needs, challenges for control and the way forward.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a prominent cause of illness and mortality worldwide. Prisons are hotspots for TB transmission worldwide. We reviewed the literature on TB in prisons worldwide, including TB risk factors, delays in diagnosis including drug resistance, the treatment accorded, and operational and logistical issues of TB care in prison. The quantity and quality of data on TB in prisons varies worldwide. The TB incidence rate in prisons varies by World Health Organization region, with African countries having the highest rates of TB and TB/HIV co-infection. Its incidence rate among inmates is about 10 times higher than that of the general population. The growing prevalence of multidrug-resistant TB is particularly concerning, as it may affect high-risk settings and disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, such as prisoners and incarcerated individuals who go undiagnosed for extended periods of time. Factors that drive the high TB rates in prisons include limited access to health services such as TB care, overcrowding, poor ventilation, malnutrition, HIV, alcohol use disorders, illegal drug use, smoking, and other comorbidities, compounded by limited access to healthcare. Addressing TB in prisons requires a multifaceted approach, that includes improving living conditions, enhancing healthcare services, and developing innovative detection methods. The ongoing conflicts in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa further complicated TB prevention and control efforts in prisons, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to address TB in these high-risk settings. Structured interventions tailored to the specific risk factors present in each environment should be investigated to effectively focus measures aimed at diminishing the overall burden of TB in prisons. Electronic record-keeping worldwide will allow for accurate data to be collected and shared.