Stem-Cell-Based Small-Diameter Blood Vessels with 3D Printing.

Cardiovascular disease has emerged as the leading cause of death worldwide. Since coronary arteries, carotid arteries, and other blood vessels are prone to narrowing, small-diameter artificial blood channels offer a crucial solution for restoring blood flow. Ideal grafts must emulate the structure of natural blood vessels, possess adequate mechanical strength, ensure long-term patency, and incorporate functional cells with minimal immunogenicity. Enhanced cell sources and engineering methods are vital for the creation of functional small-diameter blood vessels (SDBVs). Among potential cell sources, stem cells stand out due to their ability to differentiate into multiple cell types, self-renew, and exhibit low immunogenicity. Additionally, three-dimensionally (3D) printed vascular stents have attracted widespread attention for their precision and controllable bioink application. The need for tissue-engineered blood vessels is currently rising, and innovative design concepts integrating stem cells and 3D printing present promising solutions. Herein, the construction requirements of vascular grafts are reviewed, current status of using stem cells as a cell source and 3D printing as an engineering strategy is described, and prospects and challenges for the development of SDBVs in the medical field are discussed.