Tesfaye Melkamsew Asamenew, Sisay Tessema Tesfaye, Paeshuyse Jan
Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Interaction in Livestock, Department of Biosystems, Division of Animal and Human Health Engineering, KU Leuven University, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
Unit of Health Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa P.O. Box 1176, Ethiopia.
Vaccines (Basel). 2025 Apr 25;13(5):456. doi: 10.3390/vaccines13050456.
Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is caused by bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), a member of the genus Pestivirus and in the family Flaviviridae. According to some studies, the disease incurs USD 1.5-2.5 billion per year and USD 0.50 to USD 687.80 per cow loss in beef and dairy farms, respectively. Using vaccines is among the strategies to prevent the disease. However, complete protection requires vaccines that target both the humoral and cellular immune responses of the adaptive immune system. A comprehensive literature review was made to provide insights into the interaction of BVDV with host immunity, vaccine applications, and the limitation of the currently available vaccines, as well as explore strategies used to advance the vaccines. BVDV causes immunosuppression by interfering with the innate and adaptive immune systems in a manner that is species and biotype-dependent. Interferon production, apoptosis, neutrophil activity, and antigen-processing and presenting cells are significantly affected during the viral infection. Despite maternal antibodies (MatAbs) being crucial to protect calves from early-age infection, a higher level of MatAbs are counterproductive during the immunization of calves. There are numerous inactivated or modified BVDV vaccines, most of which are made of cytopathic BVDV 1 and 2 and the BVDV 1a subgenotypes. Furthermore, subunit, marker, DNA and mRNA vaccines are made predominantly from E2, E, and NS proteins of the virus in combination with modern adjuvants, although the vaccines have not yet been licensed for use and are in the experimental stage. The existing BVDV vaccines target the humoral immune system, which never gives the full picture of protection without the involvement of the cell-mediated immune system. Several limitations were associated with conventional and next-generation vaccines that reduce BVDV vaccine efficiency. In general, providing complete protection against BVDV is very complex, which requires a multi-pronged approach to study factors affecting vaccine efficacy and strategies needed to improve vaccine efficacy and safety.
牛病毒性腹泻（BVD）由牛病毒性腹泻病毒（BVDV）引起，BVDV属于瘟病毒属，是黄病毒科的成员。根据一些研究，该疾病每年造成15亿至25亿美元的损失，在肉牛场和奶牛场，每头奶牛的损失分别为0.50美元至687.80美元。使用疫苗是预防该疾病的策略之一。然而，要实现完全保护，需要针对适应性免疫系统的体液免疫和细胞免疫反应的疫苗。本研究进行了全面的文献综述，以深入了解BVDV与宿主免疫的相互作用、疫苗应用以及现有疫苗的局限性，并探索推进疫苗研发的策略。BVDV通过以物种和生物型依赖的方式干扰先天免疫系统和适应性免疫系统来导致免疫抑制。在病毒感染期间，干扰素产生、细胞凋亡、中性粒细胞活性以及抗原加工和呈递细胞均受到显著影响。尽管母源抗体（MatAbs）对于保护犊牛免受早期感染至关重要，但在犊牛免疫期间，较高水平的母源抗体却会产生相反的效果。有许多灭活或改良的BVDV疫苗，其中大多数由细胞病变性BVDV 1和2以及BVDV 1a亚基因型制成。此外，亚单位疫苗、标记疫苗、DNA疫苗和mRNA疫苗主要由病毒的E2、E和NS蛋白与现代佐剂联合制成，尽管这些疫苗尚未获得使用许可，仍处于实验阶段。现有的BVDV疫苗针对体液免疫系统，在没有细胞介导的免疫系统参与的情况下，无法提供全面的保护。传统疫苗和下一代疫苗存在一些局限性，降低了BVDV疫苗的效率。总体而言，提供针对BVDV的完全保护非常复杂，这需要采取多方面的方法来研究影响疫苗效力的因素以及提高疫苗效力和安全性所需的策略。
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