Self-Sensing Composites via an Embedded 3D-Printed PVDF-MoS Nanosensor for Structural Health Monitoring.

Carbon fiber (CF)-reinforced epoxy composites are widely used in vehicle applications, where early damage detection is crucial for reliability and safety. To address this need, we developed a self-sensing epoxy/CF composite by embedding a PVDF-MoS nanosensor via an embedded 3D printing method. By harnessing the intrinsic curing kinetics of epoxy, we tailored its rheological properties to optimize the embedded printing process, enabling precise and reliable support for sensor filaments without compromising the composite's structural and functional integrity. Through comprehensive rheological and kinetic analysis, we established a quantitative relationship among curing temperature, conversion rate, and resulting yield modulus─defining a narrow processing window essential for successful sensor integration. Specifically, we identified that an epoxy yield modulus range of 180-294 Pa and a conversion rate below 10% are critical to support the PVDF-MoS filament architecture. This embedded 3D printing method produces complex and multimaterial PVDF-MoS sensors within an epoxy matrix with minimal deformation and reduced postprocessing, which is scalable and adaptable for industrial applications. Under cyclic loading, the embedded sensors exhibited stable signals under constant loads and increased voltage signals in response to crack formation (17-35% higher) and catastrophic failure (1 order of magnitude higher), effectively capturing structural changes in real time. This study demonstrates the potential of PVDF-MoS nanocomposite sensor materials for real-time structural health monitoring in epoxy-CF composite systems, enabling early detection of defects and stress anomalies, significantly reducing the risk of unexpected failures, and enhancing structural reliability.