Life-history trade-offs explain local adaptation in .

Local adaptation has been demonstrated in many organisms, but the traits involved, and the temporal and spatial scales at which selection acts are generally unknown. We carried out a multi-year study of 200 accessions (natural inbred lines) of Swedish using local field sites and a combination of common-garden experiments that measured adult survival and fecundity, and selection experiments that measured fitness over the full life cycle. We found evidence of strong and variable selection, with particular genotypes favored more than five-fold in certain years and locations. Fecundity showed evidence of classical local adaptation, with accessions generally performing better close to their home. However, southern accessions usually had the highest fecundity-but were far more sensitive to harsh winters and slug herbivory, which strongly decreased both survival and fecundity. Accessions originally sampled on beaches had low fecundity in all environments, but massively outperformed all other accessions in the selection experiments, presumably due to an advantage during seedling establishment associated with their very large seeds. We conclude that local adaptation in reflects strong temporally and spatially varying selection on multiple traits, generally involving trade-offs and different life-history strategies, making fitness difficult to predict and measure.