Therapeutic Peptides: Recent Advances in Discovery, Synthesis, and Clinical Translation.

In recent decades, peptide-based therapeutics have undergone transformative advancements driven by breakthroughs in production, modification, and analytical technologies. Innovations in chemical and biological synthesis, coupled with novel design and delivery strategies, have systematically addressed historical limitations (e.g., poor stability and bioavailability). These advancements have facilitated the characterization and clinical translation of diverse natural and engineered peptides across therapeutic domains, including metabolic disorders, oncology, and infectious diseases. This review synthesizes critical developments in peptide drug discovery, production technologies, and clinical applications, while highlighting emerging challenges and opportunities. We further evaluate the therapeutic potential of peptides in addressing unmet medical needs and propose strategic directions to accelerate their integration into precision medicine paradigms.