Buffalo milk: nutritional composition, bioactive properties, and advances in processing technologies-a comprehensive review.

Buffalo milk is a key contributor to global dairy production due to its high levels of proteins, lipids, and essential minerals. It contains bioactive compounds like δ-valerobetaine and acetyl-l-carnitine, which exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and health-promoting properties. The functional qualities of buffalo milk are influenced by processing methods. Thermal treatments may reduce natural antimicrobial factors, while enzymatic hydrolysis can enhance antioxidant activity. Non-thermal techniques, such as high-pressure processing and ultrasonication, show promise in modulating milk bioactivity. Buffalo milk is widely used in cheese, milk powder, chocolate, and dairy beverages. This review summarizes the nutritional and bioactive components of buffalo milk and its products, and evaluates how various processing technologies affect its composition, structure, and function. The findings aim to support further research and the development of buffalo milk-based functional and health-oriented dairy products.