The influence of cognitive distractions and driving experience on hazard perception performance during partially automated driving.

Drivers of partially automated vehicles are relieved from operational driving tasks but are still expected to be prepared to assume control of the vehicle when the capabilities of driving automation are exceeded. Thus, drivers' capability to perceive hazards and react proactively may still benefit driving safety in the context of driving automation. Previous research has found that experience and distractions can affect drivers' hazard perception performance in vehicles without automation, while the influential factors of hazard perception performance in partially automated vehicles are still unclear. In this study, a driving simulator experiment was conducted to explore the effects of driving experience and cognitive distractions (i.e., auditory n-back task) on hazard perception in partially automated vehicles when drivers are faced with different predictable hazards, i.e., behavioral prediction (BP) hazard, environmental prediction (EP) hazard, and anticipatory prediction (AP) hazard, with the increase of the scenario complexity. In total, 18 experienced and 18 novice drivers drove with adaptive cruise control and lane-centering control systems. We found that experienced drivers exhibited more proactive behaviors than novice drivers when handling AP hazards and were less likely to get involved in crashes. At the same time, cognitive distractions failed to affect drivers' visual attention behaviors but affected proactive behaviors in response to hazards. Additionally, drivers noticed BP hazards later than EP and AP hazards. This study extends the understanding of drivers' hazard perception skills, highlights the role of driving experience, and provides insights into training programs in the context of driving automation.